Offshore platforms are limited in space, highly congested and when in production have an ever present source of flammable materials. All of these factors combined can lead to serious challenges when it comes to providing for the protection of personnel and vital equipment against fires and blast loading. Limited space sometimes requires living quarters and control rooms to be placed in areas prone to fires and blast overpressures.

In 2006 the American Petroleum Institute published the first edition of RP 2FB “Recommended Practice for the Design of Offshore Facilities Against Fire and Blast Loading”. This document was published under the API Subcommittee on Offshore Structures and is intended as a guideline for both fixed and floating structures used in the offshore oil and gas industry. This document covers a broad spectrum of topics including risk assessment, performance criteria, and fire and blast protection. The commentary section of the document provides examples and guidelines of recognized engineering practices, methods and data.

Blast Damage is one of the six secondary elemental damage types, composed of Cold and Heat elements. The violent force of this damage is highly destructive to Grineer Machinery and brittle Fossilized Infested creatures, but performs poorly against the Ferrite Armor worn by many Grineer units. Blast damage's status effect is an explosive Inaccuracy, causing the victim to have 30% less accuracy.

Fire

Fire hazards in the offshore industry include hydrocarbon, pool, and jet fires. Section 5 titled Fire Mitigation discusses fire walls and passive fire protection methods. Fire wall ratings in the offshore industry include:

B Class – maintains stability and integrity for 30 minutes when exposed to a cellulose fire.
A Class – maintains stability and integrity for 60 minutes.
H Class – maintains stability and integrity for 120 minutes for a hydrocarbon fire.

In all cases the cold face of the wall is limited to a temperature rise of 284 deg F. Additionally, in A Class and H Class, the walls must prevent the passage of smoke and flames and that the load bearing structures of the wall must not reach 752 deg F. Passive fire protection (PFP) includes materials such as mineral wool, ceramic fiber and Intumescent materials (Intumescent materials are thin coatings which form a thick char to prevent heat transfer).

Blast

The two major sources of blast loads are reaction loads from the expulsion of vented gases and side loads caused by the ignition of a vapor cloud (also known as a VCE). Section 7.2 describes blast load levels and design. The two types of load levels are:

Ductility Level Blast (DLB) defined as a low probability, high consequence and is considered an extreme design event. This design is used for temporary refuge, safe muster areas and escape routes.
Strength Level Blast (SLB) is analogous to earthquake design and is considered a higher probability, lower consequence event.

In all cases operators must evaluate the structure and mitigate the consequences of a blast.

The interactions of fire and blast may be synergistic, with fires occurring as a result of a blast event, or a blast as a result of a fire. Consequently, both of these variables should be considered in structural design and analysis.

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If you would like more information on this subject please refer to RP 2FB or feel free to contact MBI at (337) 334-1900. MBI has over a decade of experience in the offshore industry designing and fabricating buildings to provide protection from fire and blast. Our engineering and sales teams are available to help solve your protective building needs.

Bryan Trahan, Director of Business Development
MBI

Aside from how it's made, an IED is like any other bomb -- it explodes. Before you can understand the impact of an IED, it helps to know what's happening during that fateful moment.

1. When the primary charge explodes, gases heat up and expand rapidly outward under pressure.
2. The expansion creates shock waves or blast waves. The waves travel outward at about 1,600 feet per second (488 meters per second) over hundreds of yards or more depending upon the amount of explosive.
3. The explosion fragments the container and sends pieces of shrapnel at high speeds outward. If the IED also contained other fragments such as ball bearings, nuts, bolts and pellets, then they also would be thrown outward.
4. The heat from the explosion causes fire.
5. The heat and fires from the explosion can cause secondary fires.
6. The blast wave leaves a partial vacuum, which causes air to rush back in under high pressure. The inrushing air also pulls in debris and shrapnel.

足So, an IED explosion causes damage to vehicles and property primarily through the blast wave, heat and fires.

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In contrast, casualties within the blast radius can stem from many causes. The explosion can release shrapnel or create debris from secondary impacts such as flying glass from broken windows. This debris can penetrate the body in many places, leading to lacerations, bleeding, broken bones and loss of limbs. Second, the heat from the blast causes fires; both the heat and the fires themselves can cause severe burns. Finally, the pressure in a blast wave can be on the order of 1,000 times atmospheric pressure. This intense pressure can rupture your eardrums and slam your brain against the inside of your skull, which leads to concussion, blindness, deafness and swelling of the brain. In addition, many air-filled tissues and organs such as the lungs and bowels can be perforated by the pressure changes.

The type and extent of the injury depends on the person's location relative to the IED. A person in the primary blast radius can be hit by pressure changes, heat and shrapnel. Most likely, this person will die. Outside the primary blast radius, a person is most likely to be injured by shrapnel. The person may survive depending on how many injuries the shrapnel causes and where they're located. If shrapnel tears a hole in a major artery, then that person can bleed to death.

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足Civilian casualties are often high in IED attacks because these people are unprotected. Initial injuries to U.S. soldiers from IED attacks were caused mainly by shrapnel. However, the use of Kevlar body armor and helmets has greatly reduced shrapnel injuries. While these types of injuries have fallen, military surgeons have reported increases in traumatic brain injuries caused by the blast effects [source: Okie].